The Modes of Greek Music: Makams, Dromi, and Scales

This excerpt is from my book The Theory of Rebetiko, where I delve into the modal system of Greek music as it relates to the rebetiko genre. To access the complete text—including detailed discussions, tables, illustrations, and musical transcriptions of the examples—visit this page and explore the rich world of Greek modal music.

In order to understand the Greek modal system, it is essential to distinguish between the concepts of scale and mode. Regarding scales, among the various possible definitions, we can propose the following:

A scale is an ascending and/or descending sequence of notes, organized according to a specific intervallic structure, and spanning to the range of an octave; beyond this range, the structure repeats identically across octaves.

On the other hand, a possible definition of a mode—at least within the context of Greek music—could be as follows:

A mode is a sequence of musical phrases based on the combination of minimal intervallic structures (the elements); these phrases typically adhere to established melodic patterns (the melodic paths), which are governed by a hierarchy of the notes constituting the mode.

Beyond these definitions, the differences between a scale and a mode can be summarized as follows:

• a scale is typically defined within the range of an octave; a mode can also be defined within an octave, but may extend beyond or fall short of this range; in some cases, the octave interval may even be absent (e.g., Saba and Bestenigkiar);
• a scale repeats its intervallic structure identically across octaves; a mode often features varying intervallic structures in different octaves (e.g., Bouselik and Nikriz);
• in a scale, all degrees are treated equally, with no inherent hierarchy; in a mode, specific degrees have greater melodic importance, creating phenomena such as gravitation or melodic attraction.

The Modes of Rebetiko

The modes of rebetiko, like those of most Greek music, can be described by three main characteristics: the functional degrees, the structure and position of the elements, and the modal dominants, which also govern the melodic behavior.

Functional Degrees and Their Numbering

Each mode is defined by a specific set of degrees, which are particularly important because they constitute its essence and distinct nature, distinguishing it from other modes with similar or even identical intervallic structures. These degrees are referred to as functional degrees, and they serve five roles: modal basis, modal final, modal sub-final, modal dominant, and incipit.

Modal Basis. The modal basis (briefly: basis) is the degree of a mode from which its intervallic structure and the sequence of its elements are described. In most cases, the basis coincides with the modal final (see the following paragraph), though exceptions do exist. The basis of a mode is represented by a white notehead, in contrast to all other notes, which have black noteheads.

Modal Final. The modal final (briefly: final) is the degree of a mode on which phrases typically end. In most cases, the final coincides with the basis of the mode, and its specification may seem unnecessary; however, certain melodic patterns in the Greek repertoire allow for phrases to conclude not on the basis, as usual, but on a higher (suspended mode) or lower (reentrant mode) degree. The final is represented by the capital letter “F” placed on the corresponding degree. When the final coincides with the basis, it is not necessary to specify it.

Modal Sub-Final. The modal sub-final (briefly: sub-final) is the degree of a mode situated immediately below the modal final. Its function is to reinforce the sense of conclusion of phrases on the modal final, with the effect being more pronounced the closer the modal sub-final is to the modal final (-9, -5, or -4 commas).

Modal Dominant. A modal dominant (briefly: dominant) is a degree that, along with the basis, serves as a gravitational center for phrases, which may emphasize it more or less strongly by gravitating around and/or resting on it. A mode may have one or more dominants; in cases with multiple dominants, the most important one for defining the mode is referred to as the primary dominant, while any others are considered secondary dominants. Modes typically associate their dominants with the bases and/or peaks of their constituent elements, though this is not a strict rule, and the dominants of each mode should be assessed individually. The emphasis placed on a dominant by the opening phrases can also cause that degree to function as an incipit (see the following paragraph), which often serves as a key distinguishing feature between two modes that share an identical structure, but exhibit different melodic behaviors (e.g., the modes Rast, Rechavi and Machour share the same elemental structure, but differ in their incipit. The dominant is represented by the capital letter “D” when referring to a primary dominant, or by the lowercase letter “d” for a secondary dominant, placed in alignment with the respective degree.

Incipit. The incipit refers to the degree of a mode at which phrases distinctly begin or upon which opening phrases particularly focus, gravitating around and/or resting on it. When not explicitly specified, or when considered irrelevant for distinguishing one mode from another, the opening phrases are intended to emphasize the basis and/or dominants of the mode’s fundamental element. The incipit is represented by a hooked-tailed arrow pointing upward placed in alignment with the respective degree, or simply by the lowercase letter “i”.

Numbering the Degrees. The numbering of a mode’s degrees is sequential and ascends from the basis (I degree). For the degrees of the bottom element, the numbering continues with negative numbers and in a descending order (-II degree, -III degree, etc.).

Structure, Element Positions, and Forms

The structure of a mode refers to the description of its constituent elements, as well as their positions and relationships to one another. The position indicates the location of each element in relation to the basis of the mode. There are five positions of a mode’s elements, each identified by a specific name:

• the fundamental position is the one occupied by the element whose basis is also the modal basis; this element is referred to as the fundamental element;
• the top position is occupied by the element whose basis is connected to the peak of the fundamental element; this element is also referred to as the top element;
• the over-top position is occupied by the element whose basis is connected to the peak of the top element; this element is also referred to as the over-top element;
• the bottom position is occupied by the element whose peak is connected to the basis of the fundamental element; this element is also referred to as the bottom element;
• the intermediate position is occupied by the element whose basis does not coincide with the basis or peak of any other elements in the structure, but rather with a intermediate degree among them; this element is also referred to as the intermediate element, and it is necessary to specify the degree of the mode on which its basis is situated.

The structure of a mode is called elemental when it describes the fundamental element and, if commonly occurring in phrases, also the top, the bottom, or the intermediate element. When phrases primarily occur within the fundamental element, only the fundamental element is considered (e.g., the Tsargkiach mode). The structure of a mode is called extended when it describes all the elements that may appear beyond the range of the elemental structure.

Finally, the structure of a mode can take three forms: trichordal, when the fundamental element is a trichord; tetrachordal, when the fundamental element is a tetrachord; and pentachordal, when the fundamental element is a pentachord.

Melodic Behavior

The melodic behavior (briefly: behavior) is a characteristic of modes that describes the movement of phrases, especially opening phrases, in terms of their ascending or descending direction. The Greeks refer to the melodic behavior as poria melous or simply poria; in Ottoman classical music theory, a similar concept is expressed by the term seyir.

Most modes have a specific behavior, but others may have more than one. Two or more modes may share a similar or even identical structure, yet differ in their behavior, which often results in different names for otherwise similar modes (e.g., the modes Rast and Machour share an identical elemental structure, but differ in behavior: the former is ascending, while the latter is descending). There are four types of behaviors:

• ascending, when phrases initially focus on the fundamental element by resting on its basis and/or dominants; the phrases may remain within this range or explore the top element, before concluding on the final;
• ascending-descending, when phrases first focus on the top element by resting on its basis, which is the highest dominant of the mode; the phrases then move towards the fundamental element and its eventual dominants, before concluding on the final;
• descending, when phrases begin at the peak of the top element, the highest dominant of the mode, either resting on it or descending to the immediately lower dominant (usually the V or IV degree); the phrases may then conclude on the final or continue exploring the fundamental element, resting on its eventual dominants, before concluding on the final;
• free, when the opening phrases are not characterized by any of the previous behaviors or when they simultaneously combine elements of two or more behaviors.

The concept of behavior is presented here for completeness, rather than for immediate practical application. In the context of Greek music, behavior can be a somewhat ambiguous concept. In fact, with the exception of modes with clearly descending behavior, it is often difficult to define a single, distinctive behavior for many modes. For this reason, in rebetiko theory, it is preferable to use the concepts of incipit and gravitation around specific degrees during opening phrases.

Special Phenomena

Certain phenomena may occur during the phrases of a mode that modify its structure and/or its typical melodic behavior. These phenomena include substitution, interaction, hybridization, and melodic attraction (already discussed here).

Substitution

The substitution is a phenomenon that occurs when an element of the mode’s structure is temporarily replaced by another. Substitution is represented by the symbol “<“, with the substituted element preceding it and the substituting element following. When the substitution occurs at the end of a phrase and involves the fundamental element, thereby changing the mode’s structure only at the conclusion of the phrase, it is referred to as a final substitution. A common example of substitution is the replacement of a pentachord by its corresponding diminished form (i.e., lowered by 4 or 5 commas); this specific case is also referred to as a diminished substitution.

Interaction

The interaction is a phenomenon that describes the transition of phrases from one mode to another. An interaction can be classified as: momentary, when, after the interaction, the phrases return to the original mode; or permanent, when the phrases continue in the new mode after the interaction. Interactions are represented by the symbol “+”, with the first mode preceding it, and the second mode following.

Hybridization

The hybridization is a phenomenon that involves the blending of certain characteristics from one mode with those of another. Hybridization is represented by the symbol “∼”, with the name of the first mode preceding it, and the name of the second mode following.

Mode Classification

Modes, like elements, are classified by genus. There are four genera of modes:

• diatonic, when both the fundamental and the other element of the elemental structure are diatonic (e.g., Rast);
• chromatic, when both the fundamental and the other element of the elemental structure are chromatic (e.g., Chitzazkiar);
• semidiatonic, when the fundamental element is diatonic, while the other element of the elemental structure is chromatic (e.g., Chouzam);
• and semichromatic, when the fundamental element is chromatic, while the other element of the elemental structure is diatonic (e.g., Chitzaz).

For practical purposes, modes can be classified into eight groups. A mode’s group classification is determined by its fundamental element, except in cases where the fundamental element is considered as a derivative of another element.

From Modes to Dromi

Greek music is performed on a wide variety of instruments. Some are not restricted to equal temperament, such as the violin and the oud, while others, such as the bouzouki, baglamas, and guitar, cannot produce microtones due to their fretboards being designed exclusively for equal temperament. Nevertheless, Greek microtonal music can still be performed within the constraints of equal temperament, with some adaptations. An analysis of the repertoire reveals the empirical method that Greek musicians use to adapt their microtonal music to equal temperament. Regarding microtonal accidentals, the adjustments typically involve approximations to the nearest equal-tempered pitch:

• the penta-flat (5 commas flat) and tetra-flat (4 commas flat) are treated as a standard equal-tempered flat (b);
• the mono-sharp (1 comma sharp) is ignored;
• the tetra-sharp (4 commas sharp) and penta-sharp (5 commas sharp) are treated as a standard equal-tempered sharp (#).

The mono-flat (1 comma flat) is the only microtonal accidental whose interpretation is not absolute, but context-dependent, varying according to the phrases and modes. Generally, the mono-flat is ignored in ascending phrases; in descending phrases or other contexts, its application depends on the specific element or mode and requires case-by-case analysis.

The adaptation of a mode to equal temperament is called a dromos (plural dromi), meaning «road» or, in this context, «path». This term is particularly suitable to describe something that resembles a journey through sounds, rather than just a sequence of ascending or descending notes. Aside from the loss of microtonal nuances, a dromos retains the same characteristics and behaviors as its corresponding microtonal mode. An asterisk (*) can be added to the name of an element or mode when considering its adaptation in equal temperament, rather than its microtonal intervallic structure. In the theoretical description of a dromos, the same theoretical basis as the corresponding microtonal mode is maintained. Of course, the dromos can be transposed to any other note, which must be explicitly specified in such cases.

Greek musicians from Asia Minor often referred to the modes by their Turkish name makam, rendered in Greek as makami. The term dromos appears to have gained prominence in Greece after the population exchange established in the Treaty of Lausanne (1923), following interactions between Greek musicians from Smyrna and, in general, from the lands of what would later become modern Turkey. The direct relationship between makamia and dromi is widely recognized by Greek musicians of the early twentieth century. The musician Stelios Keromitis (1907-1979) used the terms dromos and makami interchangeably. Similarly, Markos Vamvakaris (1905-1972), considered the father of the style later known as pireotiko («from Piraeus»), noted in his autobiography that he had learned many of the modes from Kostas Karipis. He was careful to emphasize his knowledge of dromi, unlike some of his fellow musicians:

I know most of the dromi. Other musicians of the bouzoukia don’t know them. These dromi are about 60-70, it’s Turkish stuff, or Arabic.

When asked to explain a dromos, Vamvakaris did not play a scale but instead performed a taximi, an improvisation based on the characteristics of the chosen mode. This demonstrates that, for and his contemporaries, it was impossible to reduce a mode to a Western scale due to the complexity of the structures and behaviors that characterize the modal language.

From Dromi to Scales

The transition from the concept of dromos as an equal-tempered adaptation of a makami to the misleading notion of dromos as a mere scale (including the harmonization of its degrees) appears to have gained traction following the publication, several decades ago, of a series of books on dromi that offered a superficial interpretation of the modal system. This shift has fostered a widespread and now deeply ingrained belief—even among professional musicians—that the dromi of rebetiko, or more generally the laiki dromi («popular dromi»), are nothing more than scales, stripped of the fundamental characteristics that define a mode.

Terminology has often been distorted as well, resulting in numerous inconsistencies, even in the intervallic structures of elements and modes. Unfortunately, many of these inaccuracies continue to persist among Greek musicians at all levels. Some of the most striking examples include using the name Chouzam in place of Segkiach (and vice versa), using the name Kiourdi in place of Kartsigiar or Ousak, and using the name Nichavent in place of Neveser.

The Modes of Greek Music